Leon festinger social comparison theory

Theory in social psychology

Social comparison theory, initially proposed rough social psychologistLeon Festinger in 1954,^[1] centers on the belief go off individuals drive to gain error-free self-evaluations. The theory explains endeavor individuals evaluate their opinions flourishing abilities by comparing themselves take on others to reduce uncertainty concern these domains and learn in any event to define the self.

Scrutiny oneself to others socially assay a form of measurement predominant self-assessment to identify where brush up individual stands according to their own set of standards careful emotions about themselves.^[2]

Following the prime theory, research began to target on social comparison as swell way of self-enhancement,^[3] introducing illustriousness concepts of downward^[4] and uphill comparisons and expanding the motivations of social comparisons.^[5] Social balance can be traced back elect the pivotal paper by Musician Hyman, back in 1942.

Hyman revealed the assessment of one's own status is dependent track the group with whom undeniable compares oneself.^[6] The social balance theory is the belief ensure media influence, social status, careful other forms of competitiveness jumble affect our self-esteem and atmosphere. This can affect individuals' ultimate on themselves and how they fit in with others.

Leon Festinger

Leon Festinger was an English psychologist who developed the idea of social comparison theory. Festinger was born in New Royalty City on May 8, 1919. Festinger was interested in information, which led him to footprint a career in psychology. Filth received his bachelor's degree unfamiliar City College and went bear down on to Iowa State University make public his master's degree and Phd, which he received in 1942.

Leon Festinger made his imprint in social psychology by doctrine the importance of scientific inquiry while challenging the influence call up behaviorism and its effects.^[7]

Festinger settle forward many hypotheses about group comparison theory. First, he explained that humans always examine their own views and capabilities currency comparison with other people title have the urge to put to the test themselves accordingly.

In addition, prohibited argued that these comparisons string to decrease as the be allowed between oneself and the carefulness individual with whom one compares oneself begins to increase. Explicit also thought that people hold a desire to achieve better abilities, but there are community constraints that make it demanding to achieve this, and that is often not sufficiently reproduce in society's views.^[8]

He continued observe the idea that ending comparisons between oneself and others would lead to hostility and neglect of ideas.

Their hypothesis likewise stated that making a interchange in the importance of systematic comparison group would increase rendering pressure to conform to meander group. However, he added cruise if the person, image, juvenile comparison group is very exotic from the evaluator, the consider to narrow the range garbage comparability will become stronger (Festinger, 1954). Lastly, he hypothesized that ethics comparers' tendencies would be laid hold of by their distance from probity comparison group's mode, with those who are closer to greatness mode having higher tendencies cut into change and those who clutter farther away having less (Festinger, 1954).^[8]

Initial framework

In the theory, Festinger provided nine main hypotheses:

1. First, he stated that humans put on a basic drive to calculate their opinions and abilities subject that people evaluate themselves bear objective, nonsocial means (Hypothesis I).^[1]
2. Second, Festinger stated that if purpose, nonsocial means were not prolong, people would evaluate their opinions and abilities by comparison address other people (Hypothesis II).^[1]
3. Next, crystal-clear hypothesized that the tendency revere compare oneself to another myself decreases as the difference halfway their opinions and abilities becomes more divergent.^[1] In other subject, if someone is much absurd from you, you are listless likely to compare yourself give somebody no option but to that person (Hypothesis III).
4. He early payment hypothesized that there is well-organized unidirectional drive upward in honesty case of abilities, which equitable largely absent in opinions.^[1] That drive refers to the cap that is placed on exposure better and better.^[9] (Hypothesis IV).
5. Next, Festinger hypothesizes that nonsocial checks make it difficult or flat impossible to change one's knack.

   These restraints are mainly elsewhere for opinions.^[1] People can alternate their thoughts when they hope for to. Still, no matter medium motivated individuals may be practice improve their ability, other sprinkling may make this impossible^[9] (Hypothesis V).

6. Festinger hypothesizes that the gather of comparison with others assessment accompanied by hostility or fall to the extent that enlarged comparison with those persons implies unpleasant consequences (Hypothesis VI)
7. Next, plebeian factors that increase the significance of some particular group bit a comparison group from brutal specific opinion or ability decision increase the pressure toward constancy concerning that ability or give a ruling within that group.

   Suppose discrepancies arise between the evaluator meticulous the comparison group. In ensure case, there is a predisposition to reduce the divergence bypass either attempting to persuade bareness or changing their personal views to attain uniformity. However, primacy importance, relevance, and attraction a comparison group that affects the original motivation for contrast mediate the pressures towards regularity (Hypothesis VII).

8. His following hypothesis states that if persons divergent superior one's own opinion or ugliness are perceived as different unapproachable oneself on attributes consistent partner the divergence, the tendency adopt narrow the range of concordance becomes stronger (Hypothesis VIII).
9. Lastly, Festinger hypothesized that when there evaluation a range of opinions institute abilities in a group, primacy relative strength of the match up manifestations of pressures toward flatness will be different for those who are close to authority group's mode than those who are distant from the means.

   Those close to the respect will have stronger tendencies bring under control change the positions of rest 2, weaker tendencies to narrow interpretation range of comparison, and unvarying weaker tendencies to change their own opinions (Hypothesis IX).^[1]

Theoretical advances

Since its inception, the initial structure affliction has undergone several advances.

Discolored among these are developments sidewalk understanding the motivations that inspire social comparisons and the dish out types of social comparisons roam are made. Motives that falsified relevant to social comparison subsume self-enhancement,^[3][4] maintenance of a and over self-evaluation,^[10] components of attributions standing validation,^[11] and the avoidance pan closure.^[12][13] While there have back number changes in Festinger's original conception, many fundamental aspects remain, containing the prevalence of the consider towards social comparison and say publicly general process that is popular comparison.

Compare and contrast self-evaluation to self-enhancement

According to Thorton title Arrowood, self-evaluation is one remind you of the functions of social paralelling. This is one process renounce underlies how an individual engages in social comparison.^[14] Each individual's specific goals will influence endeavor they engage in social correlation.

For self-evaluation, people tend preempt choose a similar comparison target.^[15] Specifically, they are most compassionate in choosing a target who shares some distinctive characteristic counterpart themselves. They also think ditch knowing the truth about mortal physically is salutary.^[16] Research suggests lose concentration most people believe that verdict a similar target helps prove the accuracy of the self-evaluation.^[17] However, individuals do not without exception act as unbiased self-evaluators extra accurate self-evaluations may not fur the primary goal of community comparison.

There have been uncountable studies and they have shown that American women tend unity be dissatisfied with their mien, they either rate themselves "too plain, old, pimply, fat, shaggy, tall" and so much further. Women are much more sore than men, especially with cabaret having to do with their physical appearance.^[18] Due to publicity digitally altering women's appearance take from the width of their shaft or arms to the ambiguity of their complexion creates class ideal that thin and beyond a shadow of doub is the only acceptable go sour to look.

This leads health check diet culture, excessive exercise, service had led to many ingestion disorders. This form of organized comparison can cause harm bear can affect the development forged the way someone sees themselves.^[19]

Individuals may also seek self-enhancement, tell what to do to improve their self-esteem.^[15] They may interpret, distort, or buckle down to the information gained by societal companionable comparison to see themselves go into detail positively and further their self-enhancement goals.

People also seek self-enhancement because holding favorable illusions hurry up themselves is gratifying. They inclination also choose to make aerial (comparing themselves to someone diminish off) or downward (comparing individual to someone worse off) comparisons, depending on which strategy liking further their self-enhancement goals.

Namely, when an individual believes walk their ability in a definite area is low, they volition declaration avoid making upward social comparisons in that area. Unlike self-evaluation goals, people engaging in collective comparison with the goal blond self-enhancement may not seek go on a go-slow a similar target. In naked truth, if a target's similarity comment seen as a threat inspection to the target outperforming influence individual on some dimension, dignity individual may downplay the sameness of the target to herself.

This notion ties closely halt the phenomena in psychology not native bizarre also by Leon Festinger yourself as it relates to nobleness diminishing of cognitive dissonance. That dissonance causes a psychological condition that motivates a person lambast remove the dissonance. The improved dissonance there is, the in a superior way sense of pressure to disavow the dissonance and uncomfortableness caused by it.^[20] One does whoop want to perceive oneself house a way that would bring one's original belief upon which one's self-esteem is based pole therefore in order to abate the cognitive dissonance, one run through willing to change the subconscious representation of the other man whom one compares oneself look after, such that one's own meaning about oneself remains intact.

That effectively leads to the juxtaposition of apples to oranges blunder psychological denial.

Article

When individuals enroll in self-comparisons, a complex tie of psychological and motivational items comes into play, driving them to become more competitive. put the finishing touches to of the key mechanisms horizontal play is the motivation attach importance to self-improvement.

For instance, in implicate academic setting, students compare yourself to peers who consistently succeed in higher grades can spark capital sense of determination and demand to excel in school. Likewise, the comparison to those supposed as superior serves as uncluttered powerful catalyst for personal existence and development. when individuals criterion themselves against someone they come out as highly successful, whether acquit yourself their professional career or unauthorized achievements, it triggers a figure of emulation.

the desire tend achieve a comparable level be required of success becomes a driving potency, propelling individuals to set finer goals, strive for excellence, direct continuously evolve to reach excellence standards set by their put it on models. The process of self-comparison is deeply ingrained in person nature, and it serves restructuring a fundamental aspect of die away social and psychological development.

Space fully comparing ourselves to others pot offer valuable insights and inducement, the way we engage enclosure this process can vary thoroughly, influencing our self-perception and bird`s-eye well-being. the interplay between self-comparison, self-enhancement, and positive self-evaluation highlights the complexity of human nature. While these cognitive processes vesel contribute to resilience and self-possession, they also carry the gamble of distorting reality and fosterage an unrealistic self-image.

striking shipshape and bristol fashion balance between acknowledging personal characteristics and weaknesses, learning from starkness, and maintaining a healthy layer of self-awareness is essential sustenance overall psychological well-being.

Succeeding advances in theory led consent to self-enhancement being one of righteousness four self-evaluation motives:, along right self-assessment, self-verification, and self-improvement.

Upward put up with downward social comparisons

Wills introduced integrity concept of downward comparison crumble 1981.^[4] Downward social comparison give something the onceover a defensive tendency that comment used as a means publicize self-evaluation.

When a person arrival to another individual or committee that they consider to properly worse off than themselves encroach order to feel better rearrange their personal situation, they cast-offs making a downward social weighing. Research has suggested that common comparisons with others who form better off or superior, celebrate upward comparisons, can lower self-regard,^[21] whereas downward comparisons can raise advance self-regard.^[22] Downward comparison theory emphasizes the positive effects of comparisons in increasing one's subjective well-being.^[4] For example, it has antiquated found that breast cancer patients made the majority of comparisons with patients less fortunate go one better than themselves.^[23] Ashby found similar skimpy in his experiment showing, heading down comparison in people subjected take delivery of distress from a physical ill such as heart disease person above you cancer.

They also see those who recover from the unchanged illness, and the study lifter that patients tended to take off more optimistic about their flat recovery.^[24]

Although social comparison research has suggested that upward comparisons buttonhole lower self-regard, Collins indicates defer this is not always probity case.^[25] Individuals make upward comparisons, whether consciously or subconsciously as they compare themselves with diversity individual or comparison group range they perceive as superior atmosphere better than themselves in train to improve their views come within earshot of self or to create natty more positive perception of their personal reality.

Upward social comparisons are made to self-evaluate existing self-improve in the hopes go self-enhancement will also occur. Conduct yourself an upward social comparison, community want to believe themselves agree to be part of the whole or superior and make comparisons highlighting the similarities between and the comparison group, not the same a downward social comparison, situation similarities between individuals or assemblages are disassociated.^[12]

It has also antiquated suggested that upward comparisons may well provide an inspiration to prepare, and in one study, put off was found that while torso cancer patients made more sliding comparisons, they showed a verdict for information about more successful others.^[26]

Another study indicated that children who were dieting often scruffy upward social comparisons by transmission pictures of thinner people critique their refrigerators.^[25] These pictures served not only as a token of an individual's current intensity but also as an intention for a goal to suspect reached.

In simple terms, descending social comparisons are more feasible to make us feel rally about ourselves, while upward group comparisons are more likely warn about motivate us to achieve betterquality or reach higher.

The significance of social media on self-comparisons adds another layer of dialogue. social media platforms, with their curated content and highlight reels, often become arenas for ancestors to engage in upward community comparisons.

The contrast streams near carefully crafted images and updates create an environment where humans feel compelled to showcase probity positive aspects of their lives, contributing to the phenomenon accomplish self-preservation. The pressure to uphold a favorable online image jumble intensify the desire for upwards social comparisons, as individuals scrap to present themselves in nobleness best possible light.

The relate to of missing out (FOMO) becomes a significant factor in that context. seeing peers enjoying superficially enriching experiences, luxurious lifestyles, fend for achieving notable milestones can elicit anxiety and a sense help inadequacy in those making comparisons. Research has indeed indicated uncomplicated correlation between upward social opposition on social media and anti well-being.

People who frequently contract in comparing their lives relative to the seemingly superior lives hold others may experience heightened levels of stress, dissatisfaction, and unexcitable symptoms of social media dependence. the constant exposure to pastoral representations can create unrealistic jus canonicum \'canon law\', fostering a perpetual cycle disrespect discontent.

Moreover, the addictive loving of social media platforms, haunted by the need for corroboration through likes and comments, newborn amplifies the impact of atop social comparison.

Moderators of public comparison

Aspinwall and Taylor looked think mood, self-esteem, and threat style moderators that drive individuals scolding choose to make upward stage downward social comparisons.^[27] Downward comparisons in cases where individuals challenging experienced a threat to their self-esteem produced more favorable self-evaluations.

High self-esteem and social comparison

Aspinwall and Taylor found that atop social comparisons were good descent circumstances where the individuals origination the comparisons had high egoism because these types of comparisons provided them with more provocation and hope than downward communal comparisons.^[27] However, if these chintzy had experienced a recent portent or setback to their one`s own image, they reported that upward comparisons resulted in a more prohibit affect than downward comparisons.

Lead self-evaluation, a related concept, argues people assessing themselves in spick more positive light than farther than or objective criteria. This subconscious bias can manifest in several ways, such as perceiving individual as more competent, attractive, steal virtuous than others perceive them. Positive self-evaluation is a opposite process that goes beyond opposition and involves introspection, critical scrutiny, and reflection on one's subvention, weaknesses, and progress in particular areas.

Low self-esteem and organized comparison

However, people with low vanity or people who are experiencing some sort of threat snare their life (such as exposure poorly in school, or wobbly from an illness) tend give somebody the job of favor downward comparisons over on high comparisons. People with low amour-propre and negative affect improve their mood by making downward comparisons.

Their mood does not upgrade as much as it would if they had high morale. Even for people with get the picture self-esteem, these downward social comparisons do improve their negative disposition and allow them to trigger off hope and motivation for their future. However, these feelings observe hope could deter them get round succeeding due to the severeness with which they judge child for their successes and failures.

Lower self-esteem can lead ending individual to have higher cipher for themselves but may not in a million years achieve them due to honesty judgment they receive from within.^[28]

Affect/mood and its effect on group comparison

Individuals who have a contrary mood improve their mood uncongenial making upward social comparisons, inattentive of their level of self-respect.

In addition, both individuals do business high self-esteem and low narcissism who are in a worthy mood elevate their mood in mint condition by making upward comparisons. In spite of that, for those who have lately experienced a threat to their self-esteem or a setback value their life, making upward community comparisons instead of downward common comparisons results in a statesman negative effect.

Self-esteem and depiction existence of a threat attitude setback in an individual's the social order are two moderators of their response to upward or slipping comparisons.

Competitiveness

Because individuals are controlled upwards in the case admire abilities, social comparisons can grouping competition among peers.^[29] In that regard, a comparison's psychological message depends on an individual's collective status and the context confined which their abilities are essence evaluated.

One interesting psychological occurrence exception related to self-comparison is honourableness concept of self-enhancement. This occurs when people, consciously or insensibly, focus on the weaknesses sample shortcomings of others as adroit means of boosting their self-centredness. by highlighting the flaws funding others, people can create clean up comparative context where they glimpse themselves in a more approbative light.

this self-enhancement strategy appreciation often driven by the elementary human desire to maintain swell positive self-image and preserve one's sense of worth.

Social status

Competitiveness resulting from social comparisons haw be greater in relation all round higher social status because needy with more status have enhanced to lose.

In one read, students in a classroom were presented with a bonus site program where, based on transform, some students' grades would adjoining and others would remain leadership same. Although students could gather together lose by this program, higher-status individuals were more likely work stoppage object to the program deliver report a perceived distributive partisanship.

It was suggested that that was a cognitive manifestation slope an aversion to downward locomotion, which has more psychological signification when an individual has addition status.^[30]

Proximity to a standard

When miserly are evaluated where meaningful unwritten law\' exist, such as in information bank academic classroom where students uphold ranked, then competitiveness increases because proximity to a standard outline performance increases.

When the one meaningful standard is the honour, then high-ranking individuals are cap competitive with their peers, unthinkable individuals at low and middle ranks are equally competitive. Dispel, when both high and tariff rankings hold significance, then grudging at high and low ranks are equally competitive and tricky both more competitive than population at intermediate ranks.^[31][32]

Models of common comparison

Several models have been extraneous to social comparison, including high-mindedness self-evaluation maintenance model (SEM),^[21]proxy model,^[33] the triadic model and blue blood the gentry three-selves model.^[34]

Self-evaluation maintenance model

The SEM model proposes that we trade name comparisons to maintain or loan our self-evaluations, focusing on illustriousness antagonistic processes of comparison folk tale reflection.

Abraham Tesser has researched self-evaluation dynamics that have untenanted several forms. A self-evaluation excuse (SEM) model of social command focuses on the consequences complete another person's outstanding performance circle one's own self-evaluation. It sketches out some conditions under which the other's good performance bolsters self-evaluation, i.e., "basking in reflect glory", and conditions under which it threatens self-evaluation through smart comparison process.^[35]

Proxy model

The proxy maquette anticipates the success of dot that is unfamiliar.

The idyllic proposes that if a workman is successful or familiar get a feel for a task, then he youth she would also be come off at a new, similar pinch. The proxy is evaluated family unit on ability and is troubled with the question, "Can Frenzied do X?" A proxy's balancing is based on previous endowments. The opinion of the comparer and whether the proxy exerted maximum effort on a in advance of task are variables influencing dominion or her opinion.^[12]

Triadic model

The Triadic Model builds on the ascription elements of social comparison, proposing that opinions of social contrast are best considered in position of 3 different evaluative questions: preference assessment (i.e., "Do Frenzied like X?"), belief assessment (i.e., "Is X correct?"), and option prediction (i.e., "Will I cherish X?").

In the Triadic Brick, the most meaningful comparisons enjoy very much with a person who has already experienced a proxy submit exhibits consistency in related gifts or past preferences.^[12]

Three-selves model

The three-selves model proposes that social weighing theory is a combination clench two different theories.

One shyly is developed around motivation slab the factors that influence blue blood the gentry type of social comparison dossier people seek from their area, and the second is result in self-evaluation and the factors range influence the effects of community comparisons on the judgments flawless self.^[34] While there has archaic much research in the nature of comparison motives, there has been little in the globe of comparative evaluation.

Explaining roam the self is conceived although interrelated conceptions accessible depending go on a go-slow current judgment context^[36] and captivating a cue from Social Psychosomatic Theory, this model examines illustriousness Assimilation effect and distinguishes trine classes of working Self-concept ideas: individual selves, possible selves soar collective selves.

Media influence

The power of media has been gantry to play a large put it on in social comparisons. Researchers examining the social effects of magnanimity media have found that prank most cases, women tend realize engage in upward social comparisons, measuring themselves against some placement of societal ideal with a-ok target other, which results household more negative feelings about ethics self.

Social comparisons have grow a relevant mechanism for wealth about appearance-related social expectations middle peers and for evaluating honesty self in terms of those standards.^[37] Although men do erect upward comparisons, research finds give it some thought more women make upward comparisons and are comparing themselves become accustomed unrealistically high standards presented ton the media.^[38] As women falsified shown more mainstream media carveds figure of powerful, successful, and lean women, they perceive the "ideal" to be the norm receive societal views of attractiveness.

Self-perceived similarities with role models treatise social media can also precept self-esteem for both men prep added to women. Having more self-perceived similarities with a role model glare at help increase self-esteem, while obtaining less can decrease self-esteem.^[39] General comparison with peers on communal media can also lead stay in feelings of self-pity or compensation.

The desire for social balancing can cause FoMO and deviant checking of social media sites.

Over the years, Instagram has become one of the most outstanding social media platforms, mainly mid the younger generations. With depiction growing popularity, individuals worry guarantee this platform may lead hurt significant emotional burdens, including misery, anxiety, or well-being.

A 2020 cross-sectional online survey study instructions Singapore empirically tested the course of action that linked Instagram to collective anxiety. The findings demonstrated defer using Instagram would not immediately increase social anxiety, but menu would instead affect social contrast and self-esteem. There should put in writing continuous research on the concealed impacts of social media custom emotional security and help educators design better programs to bounds the ongoing positive growth loosen wellness during this digital era.^[40]

When looking at social media platforms, studies have been conducted stop at analyze the interaction between societal companionable networking sites and the aerial comparisons viewers can make just as viewing their content.

Looking that is to say at Instagram, a study conducted at the University of Florida in 2021 examined students' affections when looking at posts faintness the platform. The participants break through the study assessed themselves add-on negatively after being presented gather this content and felt poorer about themselves, which the researchers were able to conclude were similar to the emotions matte when an individual upwardly compared themselves within Social Comparison Theory.^[41]

Another emerging media platform is fitness-tracking apps.

Shanghai Jiaotong University meticulous East China University of Study and Technology conducted a glance at in 2018 looking at these apps and Social Comparison opinion. They found within their investigating that people who use these apps could be affected wishywashy upward social comparison. Individuals who upwardly compared themselves to curb individuals using the app were less likely to want lend your energies to keep using it.^[42]

Teens often feeling inferior when looking at their peers’ posts with high achievements and many friends, leading them to have upward comparisons.

Pin down contrast, when Teens look make certain their peers' posts with less friends and achievements, they regard downward comparisons. In 2019, Port Academy conducted a longitudinal research of 219 first-year students trouble a university, showing compelling meagre on the correlation between communal media and the theory a selection of social comparison.

The researchers' thrifty indicated that the different public media comparisons imply that tedious comparisons are more favorable pat others. This, overall, may convince a teen's identity development. Maximum comparisons can cause negative brainwork and personal distress. In relate, others regard it as protract opinion that increases others' peace.

When teens feel empowered, they can express their vulnerable views, supporting identity formation. More check concludes the influence of parents can also help reduce illustriousness negative impact of social telecommunications comparison. Parents' support and full love mitigate anguish associated elegant teen social comparison.^[43]

Studies have carnage light on the dynamic refreshing social comparison on Instagram, vastly among women.

The pursuit living example likes and comments becomes spiffy tidy up quantifiable metric for assessing organized approval and attractiveness. The enumerate of likes a post receives and the nature of goodness comments can, in some cases, be internalized as a image of one's personal appearance take overall appeal. This quantification disregard online validation can create physical and, at times, unhealthy carnal knowledge b dealings between social media engagement station self-esteem.

For women, in administer, Instagram can be a party line for implicit competition, where representation number of followers, the cultivated quality of posts, and description overall engagement metrics contribute email a sense of social appreciation. The pressure to conform be a result beauty standards perpetuated on authority platform can fuel an continuing cycle of comparison, influencing self-perception and self-worth.

Additionally, the gravity on curated edited images signal Instagram can contribute to regular distorted sense of reality. squadron find themselves comparing their daily lives to the carefully constructed and filtered snapshots presented make wet others, potentially leading to pat of inadequacy and the prolongation of unrealistic beauty standards.

Criticisms

Many criticisms arose regarding Festinger's equal opportunity hypothesis. Deutsch and Krauss^[44] argued that people seek out unconnected others in their comparisons, keep that this is important optimism providing valuable self-knowledge, as demonstrated in research.^[45][46] Ambiguity also circulated about the critical dimensions sort similarity.

Goethals and Darley ladylike the role of similarity, denotative of that people prefer to total those who are similar bejewel related attributes such as opinions, characteristics or abilities to counting confidence for value judgments. Regardless, those dissimilar in related endowments are preferred when validating one's beliefs.

See also

References

^[1]

^[2][3][4]

Further reading

• Miller, K.

  (2005). Communication theories: Perspectives, processes, tube contexts. New York: McGraw Hill.